Crofters and cottagers, as subordinate groups, were integral to the rural societies of Norway and Sweden. Their numbers increased significantly during the 18th and 19th centuries, partly due to population growth and new opportunities to earn a livelihood through various auxiliary economies. Another contributing factor was the growing inequality within rural communities.

This paper investigates the role of crofters and cottagers in industrialized rural communities, specifically those associated with iron works, as well as rural communities dominated by large agricultural estates in Sweden and Norway respectively. Both iron works and agricultural estates provided opportunities for crofters and cottagers to increase their income through auxiliary economies. For instance, they engaged in diverse handicrafts such as shoemaking and carpentry, produced goods like charcoal and wood, and offered services such as transportation. During periods of growth, crofters and cottagers could potentially make substantial economic gains. However, these opportunities were heavily diminished during times of crises.

Due to their subordinate status, limited or complete lack of access to various resources, and dependence on landowners, crofters and cottagers developed different strategies in response to expansion and crises within agricultural estates and iron works. These strategies often involved changes in resource utilization and auxiliary economies, encompassing social and gendered agencies.