Agile software development (ASD) methods have increasingly been used in large-scale software development projects. While ASD emphasizes the importance of social interactions between practitioners for continuous reflection and knowledge sharing, these learning activities become incredibly challenging in large-scale projects. Drawing on well-established theoretical concepts, we posit that learning in large-scale ASD projects requires a suitable environment that empowers practitioners to openly and frequently engage in social interactions, which are essential for reflection and knowledge sharing. We hypothesize that several team-level factors shape individuals’ perceptions about the learning environment and learning activities in their projects, ultimately influencing their learning behavior. To test our model, we collected survey responses from practitioners working in large-scale ASD projects in five Swedish companies (N = 159). The data was analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modeling (SEM). The results show that team structure plays a crucial role in promoting team cohesion and reflexivity, which, alongside knowledge sharing, contribute to the learning process. Our study provides ASD development research with a theoretically informed understanding of the interrelationship between the learning environment and learning activities in large-scale ASD. Our results guide practitioners in fostering suitable learning environments and enhancing learning in large-scale ASD. 

Process debt (PD) in agile software development represents inefficiencies that undermine team performance and job satisfaction. This study investigates the quantitative impact of PD on job satisfaction within agile teams, surveying 191 participants from two software development organizations. Our research examines five PD types: Process Unsuitability, Roles Debt, Synchronization Debt, Documentation Debt, and Infrastructure Debt. Using multiple regression analysis, our model explains approximately 33.8 % of the variance in job satisfaction. Among the five PD types, Process Unsuitability and Roles Debt emerged as statistically significant predictors of reduced job satisfaction. These findings indicate that certain forms of PD have a measurable negative impact on developers’ perceptions of their work environment. By identifying which PD types most strongly influence job satisfaction, this research offers empirically grounded insights that can inform targeted interventions. Understanding and addressing the most impactful PD categories may help organizations refine agile processes, thereby mitigating the detrimental effects of process inefficiencies on job satisfaction. 

Non-Technical Debt (NTD) is a common challenge in agile software development, manifesting in four critical forms:•Process Debt arises from inefficient or outdated workflows that hinder agility and adaptability. Examples include misaligned processes, poor synchronization across teams, and unclear role definitions, all of which can slow progress.•Social Debt stems from suboptimal team dynamics or organizational culture, such as poor communication, lack of trust, or fixed silos. These issues hinder collaboration, increase misunderstandings, and often result in costly rework.•People Debt refers to issues with people and their competence. It reflects challenges related to human resources and expertise, such as inadequate training, hiring delays, or overworked teams. This form of debt limits an organization’s ability to retain skilled, motivated personnel and meet increasing demands.•Organizational debt arises from outdated structures, policies, or practices that no longer align with the organization’s goals. Such rigidity limits innovation, hinders adaptability, and prevents the pursuit of operational excellence.The NODLA project11 (2021–2024), a collaboration between Karlstad University and four leading Swedish industrial partners, reveals how various debt types disrupt large-scale Agile Software Development (ASD) environments. Through extensive surveys, in-depth interviews, and statistical analyses involving a diverse group of software professionals, we identified key drivers of NTD and their impacts. Our findings emphasize:•Well-structured, highly cohesive teams learn faster, adapt more effectively,and innovate consistently.•Psychological safety, fostered by proactive leadership, is essential for innovation, experimentation, and keeping employees.•Inefficient processes and unclear roles contribute significantly to drops in job satisfaction, productivity, and team morale.•Social fragmentation, particularly in remote and hybrid settings, breeds rework, delays, and increased costs.•Neglected human resource needs, such as delayed hiring or insufficient training, limit an organization’s ability to meet growing demands.This white paper distils these insights into practical, evidence-based strategies, such as refining team composition, clarifying roles, fostering psychological safety, streamlining workflows, and embracing failure as a learning tool. By implementing these strategies, organizations can reduce NTD, reclaim agility, and unlock their teams’ full potential.

Software development encompasses various factors beyond technical considerations. Neglecting non-technical elements like individuals, processes, culture, and social and organizational aspects can lead to debt-like characteristics that demand attention. Therefore, we introduce the non-technical debt (NTD) concept to encompass and explore these aspects. This indicates the applicability of the debt analogy to non-technical facets of software development. Technical debt (TD) and NTD share similarities and often arise from risky decision-making processes, impacting both software development professionals and software quality. Overlooking either type of debt can lead to significant implications for software development success. The current study conducts a comprehensive multivocal literature review (MLR) to explore the most recent research on NTD, its causes, and potential mitigation strategies. For analysis, we carefully selected 40 primary studies among 110 records published until October 1, 2022. The study investigates the factors contributing to the accumulation of NTD in software development and proposes strategies to alleviate the adverse effects associated with it. This MLR offers a contemporary overview and identifies prospects for further investigation, making a valuable contribution to the field. The findings of this research highlight that NTD's impacts extend beyond monetary aspects, setting it apart from TD. Furthermore, the findings reveal that rectifying NTD is more challenging than addressing TD, and its consequences contribute to the accumulation of TD. To avert software project failures, a comprehensive approach that addresses NTD and TD concurrently is crucial. Effective communication and coordination play a vital role in mitigating NTD, and the study proposes utilizing the 3C model as a recommended framework to tackle NTD concerns.

This paper explores the concept of Process Debt (PD) in Agile Software Development (ASD) organizations. Drawing on the analogy with Technical Debt, PD is defined as the challenges that emerge from suboptimal or outdated processes, which can significantly hinder an organization's adaptability and software delivery effectiveness. The study proposes a survey instrument, designed to measure various types of PD based on existing research and expert interviews. Five types of PD are identified and operationalized: Process Unsuitability Debt, Synchronization Debt, Roles Debt, (Process) Documentation Debt, and Infrastructure Debt. The instrument's reliability and validity are assessed through a multi-stage process, culminating in a field survey within two ASD organizations. The findings significantly contribute to our understanding of PD and provide the first version of a validated tool for researchers and practitioners to identify and measure PD in their organizations.

Background: Agile methodologies emphasise iterative development, customer collaboration, and flexibility in software development. However, challenges arise when agile practices are adoptedin larger projects. Process inefficiencies and redundancies, knownas process debt, result from the compounded complexities of expanding agile processes and workflows. However, strategies tounderstand and tackle it remain markedly inadequate.Aims: This study investigates process debt types, causes, andeffects in large-scale agile development and its connection withtechnical debt.Method: In this case study, we conducted fifteen semi-structuredinterviews with a Nordic IT company, primarily focusing on telecomrelated products like 5G secure solutions, testing tools, and basestation software. We performed a thematic analysis to examine thedata qualitatively.Results: The thematic analysis identified five process debt typeswith 28 sub-types: documentation (3), roles & responsibilities (5),synchronization (5), inefficiency & unsuitability (12), and infrastructure debt (3) identified causes and effects of process debt andidentified the correlation of process debt to technical debt based ondescriptions from interview data and researchers’ insights.Conclusions: Process debt, stemming from flawed agile practices in large-scale development, causes inefficiencies, reduces quality, and extends timelines, risking technical debt. Its managementis essential for the success of these projects

Agile methodologies have emerged as transformative paradigms in the ever-evolving software development landscape, emphasizing iterative development, customer collaboration, and adaptability. As the scope and complexity of projects and organizations expand, applying agile principles within the context of Large-Scale Agile Development (LSAD) encounters distinctive challenges. The majority of challenges encountered in LSAD, technical and non-technical, are attributed to the accrual of social debt. However, a conspicuous gap remains in understanding and addressing social debt in LSAD. This study aims to fill this void by investigating social debt in LSAD through an in-depth industrial case study with a leading Nordic company specializing in telecommunications software and services and focusing on producing secure 5G network solutions. The study investigates the causes of LSAD's social debt and examines its impacts on secure 5G telecom software development. By addressing these objectives, this research sheds light on a critical aspect of LSAD's social debt, caused by 3C challenges(communication, coordination and collaboration), social confines challenges, community smells challenges, and organisational social challenges in the telecom sector that have been underrepresented in the existing literature.

Psychological safety, a pivotal factor in team dynamics, has been proposed as a crucial determinant of success in agile software development (ASD) teams and learning. However, the extent of its influence within the domain of large-scale agile (LSA) software development teams remains underexplored. This research investigates the multifaceted dimensions of psychological safety within LSA teams, examining both its precursors and outcomes. This study conducted semi-structured interviews with software professionals actively involved in LSA projects within a Swedish software consultancy company. The findings underscore the intricate nature of establishing a psychologically safe environment within LSA teams, revealing it as a multidimensional construct necessitating a proactive leadership approach, fostering open communication, and cultivating an ecosystem of constructive feedback. The study highlights the critical importance of intentionally shaping teams to facilitate continuous learning, ensuring remuneration safety, and implementing a comprehensive onboarding process for incoming team members. By fostering psychologically safe settings, LSA teams enhanced teamwork dynamics, heightened job satisfaction, and facilitation continuous learning and development. Notably, the absence of such an environment exacerbates the phenomenon of brain drain, exposing the tangible consequences of overlooking this fundamental aspect of organizational culture. This study proposes avenues for future research directions, aiming to further unravel the nuances of psychological safety and its cascading effects within the realm of contemporary LSA software development context.

Scaling agile approaches in large company context is prone to technical debt due to large number of teams of different size, level of expertise and their need for management and communication. The goal of this study is to investigate the phenomenon of non-technical debt related issues in the context of large-scale agile software development. To achieve this goal, eleven experts from two multinational companies were inter-viewed as part of the the case study. The analysis results revealed four non-technical aspects of technical debt that are present in large-scale agile context. These are people, social, documentation and process debt aspects. Furthermore, the findings suggest that lack of communication, collaboration and cooperation are the key contributors to identified debt aspects, and that many of the causes for debts are stemming from a culture of not developing rules, protocols, or guidelines. Implementing ground rules to improve quality seems to mitigate several of the identified debt types.

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