Nordic noir is a film and television genre, and examples include The Killing, Borgen, The Bridge, The Millennium Trilogy, and Midnight Sun. The genre has generated international excitement. This chapter examines the case of Nordic noir and tourism. The narratives in Nordic noir invoke the often cold, grey, and wet weather in Nordic countries in order to create an atmosphere of melancholia and dejection that corresponds often to the criminal stories. Still Nordic noir tourism has become popular, and have helped these countries attract tourists, illustrating that the relationship between screen landscapes and tourism is more complex than selling the beautiful and positive.

Purpose This paper aims to focus on the re-presentation of the cultural phenomena hygge in Denmark and fika in Sweden in destination branding and address the inevitability of their essentialization through the branding process. Design/methodology/approach Three relevant semi-structured interviews with destination marketing organisation's employees were conducted, as well as a content-based analysis of three social media channels (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram). A total of 465 posts in total were analysed (140 Facebook posts, 109 Twitter posts, 216 Instagram posts). Findings This study demonstrates how, when communicated through social media, intangible cultural assets are transformed into tangible elements. It explains why the re-presentation and place branding processes necessarily simplify and essentialize the destination. Originality/value Destination branding scholars have traditionally criticised the flattening and essentialization of culture in destination branding and have called for a more nuanced approach to presenting a destination. This paper situates destination branding as a process that necessitates the manipulation of the presentation of the destination, which inevitably essentializes the place; this is intended. Critical destination branding researchers need to rethink their criticisms and acknowledge the inherent essentialization goal of destination branding.

Inom besöksnäringen är delningsekonomins utbredning särskilt tydlig och inom denna industri återfinns en rad företag såsom Airbnb, Vayable, Getmyboat, OffWeFly, EatWith, Uber, Fodora och Travelbuddy. Airbnb, som förmedlar uthyrning av privatpersoners bostäder som en sorts hotellrum, är kanske det mest välkända företaget. Typiskt för delningsekonomin i tjänstesektorn är digitala plattformar som sammanför tjänsteleverantörer och tjänstemottagare. Samproduktion av värde genom digital kommunikation kan se ut på många olika sätt och handlar om olika aktiviteter knutna till produktutveckling, ryktesspridning, upplevelseskapande samt skapande av gemenskaper. I denna studie undersöks utvecklingen av en digital plattform för guidetjänster inom äventyrsturism. Syftet med forskningsprojektet är att undersöka vilka nya möjligheter och utmaningar ett startupföretag inom äventyrsturism möter i en delningsbaserad ekonomi. Detta har gjorts genom att undersöka digitala och visuella kommunikationsprocesser i arbetet med att skapa plattformen. Äventyrsturism har ökat dramatiskt på senare år och är en växande näring i Sverige som anses vara en attraktiv destination för äventyrsaktiviteter. Affärsmodellerna inom denna sektor kännetecknas dock ofta av en traditionell och inarbetad men, med dagens digitala teknologi, omodern affärsmodell i förmedlingen av tjänster och upplevelser. Därför är den studerade digitala delningsplattformen högst intressant som ett potentiellt nytt sätt att förmedla äventyrsupplevelser.Resultaten i denna studie visar på både möjligheter och svårigheter för plattformsbaserade startups som använder sig av en delningslogik att implementera en lönsam affärsmodell. Möjligheterna handlar om att det i delningsekonomin finns en revolutionerande potential att förändra villkoren för guider och ge dem ökad egenmakt och förhandlingspositioner. Detta skulle kunna skapa ett mer diversifierat utbud av tjänster riktat till en bred grupp med användare. Detta går i linje med delningsekonomins ideologi att skapa ett mer hållbart samhälle. Dock betyder de senaste årens institutionalisering och reglering av delningsekonomin att digitala plattformsbaserade företag begränsas i deras utformning av affärsmodeller och därmed alltmer liknar traditionella företag. Ideologin inom delningsekonomin kan då fungera som ett retoriskt verktyg för att sälja in företaget genom en vision om ett bättre samhälle och kompensera medarbetarnas och användarnas ibland prekära arbetsvillkor med ett löfte om att de arbetar för ett högre mål. Det är alltså möjligt att se en tydlig konflikt som plattformsföretag har att hantera – att balansera den ideologiska och den kommersiella dimensionen i sin verksamhet.Den viktigaste utmaningen plattformsföretag har vid lansering av sin affärsmodell är att rekrytera användare och driva besökare till delningsplattformen som kan lösas genom att rikta sig till entreprenörens egna livsstilsgemenskap och personliga nätverk både för att rekrytera medarbetare, tjänsteleverantörer och kunder. Kommunikationen till denna gemenskap drivs genom en tydlig identitet med (för den specifika gemenskapen) attraktiva bilder, retorik och symboler. Konsekvensen blir dock att målgruppen begränsas till en relativt snäv homogen gemenskap och att man missar målet med att rikta sig till en bred grupp av användare. Fortsatt forskning kan visa hur ett plattformsföretag kan utveckla strategier för att bredda sin gemenskap.

AbstractThis paper deals with the enactment of power in and through a sharing economy business model. The objective of research is to understand business models as a kind of narrative performance that mobilise labour, capital and users on a startup platform within adventure tourism. The paper elaborate on the dynamics between performances and power in terms of how the narratives performed by the platform organisation can influence actors in terms of their emotions and identity. Drawing on a longitudinalstudy of the process of organising in a sharing startup, involving interviews and participant observation of work meetings, the paper identifies three different narratives that the founder of the platform performs in order to gain influence. It is argued that sharing organisations relies on a fuzzy ideology that is not transferable to all platform-based startups and that the lure of sharing needs to be treated withcaution.Keywords: sharing economy, action research, narrative performativity, ideology, power

The concept of sharing is commonly employed in brand narratives of platform-based start-ups to recruit users. This paper examines sharing as a brand ideology and how it is enacted by companies in the startup phase of business. As the sharing start-ups’ business model is dependent on transaction fees generated on the platforms, traction (i.e. a high volume of users) is critical for success. By analyzing commonalities in two failed attempts of generating traction for two sharing platforms for adventure tourism in Scandinavia, the study reveals some of the risks of adopting mainstream ideologies for startup brands. The findings demonstrate how the ideology of sharing startup brands aims at positioning itself opposite to traditional business logic, by emphasizing utopian social ideals of community, whilst at the same time adhering to ideals of a radically free market economy. Contradictory values are used to differentiate sharing businesses and give them a – perhaps - deeper meaning. Ideological components such as community, anti-consumerism, and sustainability are used to reconfigure precarious contract labor as self-fulfillment and individual choice. It is argued that this fuzzy ideology is not transferable to all platform-based startup brands and that the lure of sharing needs to be treated with caution.

Emotional labor has for decades been addressed in tourism studies and tourism management. Coined by Arlie Hochschild, the concept has been discussed in relation to tourism and hospitality service work and has predominantly been regarded as a clear-cut social interaction between employee and customer with an employer in the background. Emotional labor is something that has to be formalized in a certain way in order to be addressable from a managerial rationality. However, in contemporary capitalism, with the rise of neoliberalism, the experience economy and the sharing economy, the clear-cut interaction mentioned above does not apply to the same degree. The employee can just as well be his or her own employer, and at the same time find himself or herself regulated by mobile technologies and digital software characteristic of sharing economy platform arrangements. Emotional labor as a societal phenomenon needs to be rethought. To some degree this has been done in tourism studies, but this research is still in its infancy. In particular, there is a lack of more nuanced takes on emotional labor in the tourism sharing economy. This chapter offers such a take on emotional labor, highlighting the emotional labor of being an Airbnb host as a case.

This paper analyses how the “alpha male” of the tourism academy tribe is imagined in celebratory contexts. The tradition is interesting from a gender perspective, in that the majority of celebratory portraits found in tourism research journals are those of male scholars. Whether this is regarded as a coincidence or a consequence of the resilience of a glass ceiling, it is interesting to investigate how these “alpha males” and their academic lifeworks are described, characterized, and presented. The paper contains a quantitative description and qualitative analysis of the portraits published in Anatolia. In particular, we apply philosopher Stephen Pepper’s root metaphors of formism, organicism, mechanism, contextualism to examine how tourism research work in the world is imagined.

Emotional labour has for decades been addressed and investigated in tourism studies andtourism management. Originally coined by Arlie Hochschild in the late 1970s it has increasinglybeen elaborated upon in relation to tourism service work. This take on the originally sociologicalconcept has predominatly been managerial in tourism management studies, and contextualized asa clear-cut social interaction between employees and customers, with an employer in thebackground. Faithful to its mission to produce knowledge of value for the management of thetourist company (be it a hotel or some similar typical actor in the tourism industry) emotionallabour has thus been imagined, grasped and understood in specific more or less instrumental andfunctionalistic ways. Emotional labour is something that has to be formalized in a certain way inorder to be addressable and handable from a managerial rationality.However, with the rise of the sharing economy in tourism, with beacons like uber andAirbnb in the center, the employee becomes his or her own employer, and at the same time isregulated by an assemblage of digital technologies. The established view on emotional labour assituated within a triangle of employee, customer and employer does not apply in the same way.As a consequence, emotional labour as a societal phenomenon needs to be rethought, outside thecomfort zone of conventional managerialism. To some degree this has been done in tourismstudies, but this research is still in its cradle. In particular, there is a lack of reasoning of more(sociological) contextual and systematic, as well as critical but also nuanced, takes on emotionallabour in the tourism sharing economy. This paper offers such a contextual, systematic, criticalbut also nuanced (thus avoiding conventional neoliberalism-bashing) take on the phenomenon,with the highlighting the emotional labour of being an Airbnb host as a case.

Like events in general, festivals have been recognized as an increasingly important element of destination marketing. Not only do they add to the critical mass of attractions available at the destination, but also they provide promotional opportunities through the exposure they receive in various forms of the media. This study focuses on the former aspect by examining the characteristics and reactions of those attending the Storsjöyran Music Festival in northern Sweden, and is aimed at providing insights into consumer marketing considerations. An examination of associations between motivational tendencies influencing festival attendance, demographic characteristics, repeat visitation patterns, and satisfaction levels is carried out. However, relationships between satisfaction levels and repeat visit intentions are compounded by the residential location factor, as nonlocals are less inclined to make a repeat visitation despite relatively high levels of satisfaction. There are two main conclusions that have a bearing on management and marketing considerations. First, there appear to be two distinct markets for the event. One is comprised of visitors from outside the region, dominated by young singles who see the event as an opportunity to party. The other market is mainly drawn from the local population and comprises mainly slightly older couples and families who are attracted by the excitement and novelty of the event. Second, despite these contrasts, there are overlapping sets of motivations driving these two primary markets.

In this exploratory research, multiple case studies of various types of festivals in two countries reveal how festival managers work with stakeholders and who they are. Stakeholders' roles are categorized as regulator, facilitator, coproducer, supplier, collaborator, audience, and the impacted, and the results show clearly that key stakeholders take multiple roles affecting the organization. Practical implications are drawn for event managers regarding the identification, evaluation, and management of stakeholder relationships. Drawing on resource dependency and stakeholder theories, a conceptual model is presented that illustrates the conclusion that festivals and events are produced within and by a set of managed stakeholder relationships. Recommendations are made for development of this line of research and theory building.

This article describes and analyses the process in which the establishment of a Christmas market led to an attempt to establish a regional destination brand named "Delightful Christmas". Our focus is on the network dynamics of the process, in particular its multi-project network characteristics. Empirical findings are based on qualitative data from personal interviews, participant observation and documentation in an action research approach. The process is analysed as a so-called project network (Hellgren & Stjernberg, 1995) involving different actors having different aims in event and destination brand development, thus creating a process with actors of existing, but resource-lacking, dependencies. Despite the disagreements between actors, the common beliefs and hopes for the integrated destination theme remained and innovative work continued for about three years in an environment where conditions were difficult due to insufficient financial resources, project coordination and long-term strategic planning. Conclusions concern the dynamics of a complex multi-project network organization and how its failure can be explained.

This article explores how social media becomes a part of integrated marketing communications of festival organizations. The purpose of this article is to conceptualize the cocreation of festival experiences online by comparing managerial strategies and communicative patterns of three large Scandinavian music festivals: Storsjöyran, Way Out West (Sweden), and Roskilde Festival (Denmark). The theoretical point of departure is taken in the literature on consumer-producer cocreation, originating from recent conceptualizations of the service-dominant logic and a tribal perspective on consumption. Based on the empirical findings, we propose an analytical framework to improve our understanding of the management of social media communications, offering three distinct value cocreation strategies in a festival context. © 2015 Cognizant Comm. Corp.

Tourism in the wake of films, literature, and music is gaining interest among academics and practitioners alike. Despite the significance of converging tourism and media production and popcultural consumption, theorizing in this field is weak. This chapter explores complex relationships among popcultural phenomena, destination image creation, and tourism consumption. By taking a broader social science approach, it revisits and connects research themes, such as symbolic consumption, negotiated representations, fans and fandom, technology mediation, and media convergence. The chapter concludes with an integrative model, or "popcultural placemaking loop," which is qualified through six propositions. Copyright © 2015 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Digital technology affords new means of controlling and managing. The platform economy relies on complex surveillance techniques to analyze, control, and manipulate on the basis of reviews, evaluations, and other volunteered data. This paper conceptualizes mechanisms of surveillance, with a focus on Airbnb. It sets out with a discussion of trust and reputation-building to then analyze the mechanisms employed to control guests and accommodation providers. Findings suggest that communication techniques, technological tools, services, and policies form a surveillant assemblage. Mutual evaluations are engineered as mechanisms supportive of trust. The article contributes to the discussion of emerging complexities of these forms of control, in tourism and for society more generally.

This study is concerned with interorganisational aspects of relationship marketing, which, in turn, has led to a focus on political aspects, i.e. on interests, conflicts and power in a project network consisting of actors marketing a festival. A metaphor of a project network, the political market square (PSQ), is introduced and used in the analysis of a case study of the Storsjöyran Festival in Sweden. In order to understand the politics and the dynamics in the PSQ, actors' access is discussed. Moreover, interactions between actors, which are to be regarded as cooperative or characterised by power games, and the degree of change dynamics, contribute to understanding dynamic political processes. Identified political processes were gatekeeping, negotiations, coalition building, building of trust and identify building. These processes, and actors' entries and exits between the PSQ and a wider network, caused turbulence and changed the power structure of the PSQ. The turbulence fostered change and innovations that resulted in product development. However, actors' shared identities and a stable, positive image of the festival moderated the turbulence. 

This thesis comprises five papers discussing two case studies – the mega-event World Championships in Athletics 1995 in Göteborg and the regional festival Storsjöyran in Östersund, Sweden. The study adopts an organisational-theoretical perspective and focus on both intra- and interorganisational aspects of the marketing work. The purpose is to understand the structure and the processes of the organising of the marketing of events, and how renewal of an event is performed.

An overview of the literature of marketing events is presented. The literature, however, has a normative and practical orientation – it views the environment as relatively stable and predictable and people as rational and decision-oriented. Instead a theoretical frame of reference was developed, which contains theories on temporary organisations and project networks based on case studies.

The result of the study shows that the rationality of the intraorganisational marketing work was action-oriented and emergent rather than decision-oriented and planned. When time is limited, and the environment is complex and changing, action is prioritised over planning. Actors adapted to a changing market and at the same time performed creative renewal of the event in order to produce an attractive event product. Thus, the marketing work was both reactive and proactive. Processes of renewal included various ways of encouraging the emergence of new ideas and creative solutions, such as brain storming, imitation of similar products and influences from the environment. Two processes of renewal was identified – institutionalised and emergent. An important emergent renewal process identified was improvisation.

As an idea, the event creates an imaginary space where actors project their imaginations on how the event can fulfil their interests. This space equals the political market square (PSQ) – a metaphor used in this study to understand the inter-organisational marketing of an event. The PSQ adopts a pluralistic frame of reference, i.e. it places emphasis on the diversity of group interests, regards conflict as an inherent characteristic of organisational affairs and regards power as a crucial variable through which conflicts are resolved. The Political Market Square metaphor illustrate the more or less limited access to participating in the marketing of an event and the interaction processes based on conflict and consensus, which, in turn, lead to turbulent or stable change dynamics. 

This article argues that festival innovation is a highly cooperative endeavour among many actors in an inter-organizational network. The aim is to understand how collaborative festival innovation is performed and who takes part in the process. Material from case studies of three Swedish festivals showed that innovation takes place in complex networks involving many actors having various interests. Innovation networks are often highly dynamic and changing: innovation often takes place in new partnerships. The innovation work is hard to plan: it is to a large degree an emergent process and sometimes innovation originates from improvisation. Some innovation can, however, become institutionalized and embedded in the routines of the partnership interaction. Festival organizers need to reflect on their network and relate strategically to how their partners can contribute to successful festival innovation.

This study contributes to understanding processes of innovation and creativity in festival organizations. The focus is on the internal work of renewing the festival. Three case studies of Swedish festival organizations demonstrate how festival workers attempt to renew the festival product. Processes of renewal include various ways of encouraging new ideas and creative solutions, such as brainstorming, imitation of similar products, and influences from the external environment. Two main processes of renewal were identified: institutionalized and emergent. The study further elaborated on the emergent process of renewal, thus identifying incremental and improvised renewal. Different factors contributing to or hindering innovations were distinguished; the demands of potential visitors, the management's view on renewal, the team's view on renewal, the organizational culture, and change of managers and staff.

This article argues that actors in different event networks experience different dynamics in terms of the joint organising of the event. The Political Market Square (PSQ) model is used to describe, analyse and compare the interactions and dynamics going on in three event networks. The purpose is to categorise different kinds of PSQs in terms of actors' interactions and network dynamics, which, in turn, contributes to knowledge on how events are produced using a network perspective. An analysis of the different event networks resulted in three different categories of Political Market Squares - the jungle, the park, and the garden, representing a tumultuous, a dynamic, and an institutionalised event network. The institutionalised PSQ (the park) is often prescribed in literature on event organising. Therefore, more research focused on understanding tumultuous and dynamic event networks (the jungle and the park) are needed. (C) 2008 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Redaktör för boken är Mia Larson, turismforskare vid Handelhögskolan i Göteborg. Boken är ett samarbetsprojekt mellan ETOUR och nätverket Svenska Sällskapet för Turismforskning.

Efter en introduktion (kapitel ett) av Mia Larsson följer en del i boken med Naturturism som tema. I kapitel två diskuterar Per Åke Nilsson det naturbaserade rekreativa kapitalet. Han menar att intressekonflikter uppstår mellan lokalbefolkning, turismföretagare och förespråkare för turism samt allmänheten i övrigt vad gäller hur och på vilket sätt naturen ska utnyttjas. Nilsson belyser denna problematik genom ett innehållsrikt fall i Gimdalen, där lokalbefolkningen uppfattade en extern investering inom turism i bygden som ett hot mot det lokala rekreativa kapitalet.

Klas Sandell diskuterar i kapitel tre olika reservatsstrategier och dess framtida roll vad gäller å ena sidan naturturism och friluftsliv och å andra sidan en hållbar och lokalt förankrad utveckling. Han introducerar en ekostrategisk begreppsram som belyser olika sätt att närma sig landskapet och använder sedan den vid diskussion av bl a Kirunafjällens nationalparksförslag. Sandell diskuterar även allemansrätten och UNESCOs s k biosfärområden som intressanta reservatsstrategier för att, bl a med turismen som viktigt element, försöka integrera natur och kultur liksom naturvård och lokal utveckling.

I kapitel fyra ger Peter Fredman och Thomas A. Heberlein en översikt över den svenska fjällturismens förändringar under två decennier, som kan vara till nytta vid planering av framtida naturturism. De har tittat på förändringar i turistströmmar till olika delar av fjällen, förändringar i aktiviteter som utövas och typ av boende. Tre olika hypoteser diskuteras som kan förklara förändringarna; sociala och ekonomiska faktorer, aktivitetsrelaterade faktorer och medias roll.

I bokens andra del är temat Konsumtion av turistprodukten. I kapitel fem behandlas blivande turisters olika överväganden vid val av resmål, vilket har att göra med olika faktorer som upplevs viktiga vid konsumtion av turismprodukten. Ewa Wolf diskuterar skillnader mellan val av resmål och andra produkter och menar att, till skillnad från många andra konsumtionsformer, det inte är produkten i sig som är målet med köpet, utan den subjektiva upplevelsen som resan leder till. I en studie av resenärer till Portugal kunde tre nivåer i urvalsprocessen urskiljas. Den första avser överensstämmelse mellan de blivande turisternas personliga semesterideal å den ena och semesterortens konkreta förutsättningar å den andra. Här kunde fyra teman urskiljas: längtan efter distans, kunskap, kontraster och status. Den andra avser de blivande turisternas strävan att undvika såväl stress som leda under semestern. I den tredje urvalsnivån används utomstående experter, t ex reklam i form av resekataloger och privata råd av personer i omgivningen

Kapitel sex relaterar till konsumtion av en del av turismprodukten - restaurangbesöket. Lena Mossberg diskuterar upplevelserummets påverkan på kundens beteende vid turismrelaterade tjänster. Hon menar att kunden reagerar kognitivt på t ex rumslig situation och arkitektur, känslomässigt på t ex musik, ljus och färg, samt fysiskt vad gäller t ex bekvämlighet och lukt. Begreppet upplevelserummet, och diskussionen kring detta, kan, enligt Mossberg, tillföra både akademiker och praktiker insikter i och förståelse om betydelsen av omgivningsfaktorer i marknadsföringen. Detta inte minst eftersom formgivning och design har blivit alltmer viktiga konkurrensfaktorer.

Tredje delen av boken har destinationen som utgångspunkt för forskning om olika aspekter. Marknadsföring och utveckling av turismdestinationen i bred bemärkelse står i fokus. Kapitel sju och åtta och nio handlar om destinationsmarknadsföring och utveckling utifrån ett nätverksperspektiv. Jörgen Elbe kritiserar i kapitel sju den gängse modellen för destinationsmarknadsföring. Han menar att den är en tillämp-ning av en normativ marknadsföringsmodell som gäller för företag som opererar på konsumentmarknader, och föreslår istället att studera destinationsmarknadsföring utifrån ett nätverksperspektiv. Elbe menar att producenter av turistprodukter är ömsesidigt beroende och att turistorganisationer ofta bildas för att samordna mark-nadsföringsaktiviteter inom en destination. Elbe visar i en studie av destination Småland hur aktörer med olika resurser deltar i gemensamma marknadsföringsakti-viteter, samt turistorganisationens samordnande roll.

Även Yvonne von Friedrichs Grängsjö menar att ett traditionellt transaktionsorienterat fokus på marknadsföring med fördel kan bytas mot marknadsföring med fokus på relationer, interaktioner och nätverk. Hon har studerat hur aktörerna på turistdestinationen Åre arbetar med destinationsmarknadsföring, och varför de "gör som de gör", utifrån föreställningen att aktörers olika värdegrunder påverkar interaktionen mellan aktörerna. I kapitel åtta lyfts två olika perspektiv fram i diskussionen om hur aktörerna ser på sitt arbete och hur de relaterar till varann - Gemeinschaft ("tjäna Åre") och Gesellschaft ("tjäna på Åre"). Dessa olika värdegrunder används för att förstå destinationsmarknadsföringens organisering och utformning.

Laila Frisk ser relationer och interaktioner mellan aktörer på en turismdestination som väsentliga för att förstå destinationsutveckling. I kapitel nio beskriver hon hur fem destinationer i norra Sverige samarbetar (eller inte) och diskuterar hur sociokulturella faktorer såsom värderingar och attityder till turism och samarbete kan hindra eller bidra till destinationsutveckling.

Kapitel tio fokuserar turistorganisationens roll vid destinationsmarknadsföring. Ola Bergströms studie visar på hur en turistorganisation kan skapa samspel mellan privata och offentliga intressen genom formulering av destinationens varumärke. Han beskriver hur Barcelonas turistorganisation arbetar med att utveckla sitt varumärke och hur turistorganisationens handlingsprogram och aktiviteter medverkar till att styra turisternas uppfattning av staden. Bergström menar emellertid att det är svårt att hävda att turistorganisationen kan kontrollera vad som händer i staden och därmed konkret inverka på stadens turism. Turistorganisationens framhävande av ansvarstagandet för stadens varumärke kan därför framstå som ett maktanspråk för att öka sitt inflytande i förhållande till andra dominerande aktörer i staden.

Massmedier utgör en av flera aktörer som producerar information om turismdestinationer, som i sin tur påverkar människors mentala bilder av platser. Medier medverkar därmed, trots att de står oberoende från turistindustrin, till att människor lockas till eller avhålls från att resa till en bestämd plats. Kristina Lindström visar i kapitel elva, genom en studie av tre svenska dagstidningar under tre decennier, hur turistmålet Mallorca uppmärksammas i media.

Bokens fjärde del belyser olika aspekter kring hur människor som arbetar i turistföretag organiserar sitt arbete, samt varför glesbygdsturistföretagarna väljer att arbeta i turismverksamheter.

Mia Larson visar i kapitel tolv genom en studie av Storsjöyran hur arbetet med att förnya en årligen återkommande festival går till - en förnyelse som är viktig för att både attrahera nya och behålla gamla besökare. Kapitlet syftar till att förstå de kreativa och innovativa processer som leder till förnyelse - såsom institutionalise-rade, framväxande och improviserade. Larson fann att en stark föreställning om att förnyelse är viktig skapar förutsättningar att motverka stagnation. Genom att undvika att fastna i alltför stereotypa situationer är det möjligt att hitta nya vägar till förnyelse av produkt och process. Istället för att fokusera på ordning och kontroll, uppmuntras kreativitet, spontanitet och handling genom intuition, d v s handlingsorienterad improvisation som fokuserar på nya möjligheter, idéer och innovationer.

I kapitel tretton illustrerar Dorit Christensen och Svante Leijon meningsfullt arbete i turistföretaget Boda Borg utifrån den existentialistiska skolan. De beskriver arbetet i företaget som ett estetiskt spel där en balans i interaktionen mellan konstnärliga kooperatörer, konstnärliga rum (produkten på Boda Borg), tekniken i konstskapandet och begeistrade gäster ledde till ett levande estetiskt spel och därmed ett meningsfullt arbete. Studien visade på att den fortsatta dynamiken - kooperatörernas organiseringsförsök, intresset för sponsring, tidvis för många gäster etc - över tid medförde att leken i arbetet övergick i plikt, engagemang tog ut sitt pris i trötthet, kunderna blev stereotypa istället för spännande etc. Detta förklarar Christensen och Leijon med att företagslogiken blev mer framträdande i verksamheten samt att kooperatörerna körde slut på sig själva.

Sven-Erik Karlsson och Gunilla Lönnbring har studerat turistföretagare i två värmländska kommuner. I kapitel fjorton diskuterar de sociala och kulturella förklaringar till att människor väljer att arbeta inom små turismverksamheter. Vid sin analys använder Karlsson och Lönnbring begreppen livsstil och livsform och ser självständighetens livsform som dominerande i kommuner med hög andel egenföretagare. Kapitlet visar att företagandet definitivt är en ekonomisk försörjnings-strategi, men ingår också i en social kontext där platsens betydelse och dess tradition av socialt och kulturellt kapital är centrala för att förstå olika jordmåner för företagande.

De sista kapitlen i denna bok ger en kritisk syn på turismforskning. Författarna föreslår alternativa angreppsätt i framtida turismforskning.

Urban Laurin ser turism som skapandet av upplevelser, där den tysta kunskapen i hantverket - kunskap i handling - är av stor vikt. I kapitel femton argumenterar han därför för ett samspel mellan turismforskning och konstnärligt utvecklingsarbete, som skulle kunna bidra till kraft och nyskapande i såväl den akademiska utbild-ningen, i forskningsprojekt och i praktisk kunskapande inom turismverksamhet.

I kapitel sexton diskuterar Klas Grinell turism och turismforskning utifrån ett post-kolonialistiskt perspektiv. Han menar att den internationella turismen har växt fram som en del av den europeiska industrialismen, kolonialismen och den vidare moderniteten. Kolonialismen, menar Grinell, berör inte bara relationen mellan forna kolonisatörer och koloniserade, utan är en så central del av moderniteten att även vår svenska moderna identitet och dess relation till omvärlden också inom västvärlden berörs. Kapitlet diskuterar den internationella turismens plats i moderniteten och i den därmed förbundna imperialismen - både utifrån ett historiskt och nutida perspektiv.

I det sista kapitlet - kapitel sjutton - kritiserar Sven-Erik Karlsson den existerande forskningen om turisters val av destination. Han granskar två inriktningar - kognitiva konsumtionsvalsteorier och motivationsteorier - och menar att den förstnämnda bygger på en alltför ensidig människosyn (rationell människosyn) medan den andra innehåller alltför lite teoretiska förklaringar utifrån erhållna empiriska resultat. Karlsson konstruerar en skiss till en utvecklad teoretisk referensram om människors val av resor utifrån några sociologiska utgångspunkter där den sociala kontexten fokuseras.

Western society has increasingly turned to different kinds of spirituality in dealing with an accelerated tempo and demands in everyday post-modern life. Yoga, meditation, mindfulness and other forms of modalities, often connected to ancient eastern thinking, are taught and implemented in management and leadership practises (Cederström & Spicer, 2015). Although organizational theorizing has previously excluded issues of spirituality, an increasing interest in this discourse has awakened (cf. Fry, Latham, Clinebell & Krahnke, 2016). For instance, an important sub-field of organizational theory where non-rational views of organizations actually already have evolved is the field of leadership, that commonly addresses non-rationalistic ideals in organizations such as emotions, visions and transformative change (cf. Bass, 1990). In line with a growing interest in alternative ways of organising our lives as both consumers and producers (as taking part of building our societies through business or non-profit operations) to take care of each other and the world, compassion is a concept to be explored. This is particularly the case when it comes to creating places of leisure and relaxation. The challenge is to create and implement compassionate and sustainable leisure places of community that allows people to catch their breath. These environments need to be conscious, supportive and compassionate to function as intended: to be like a shelter in a contemporary society that stresses other goals and priorities (as efficiency, rationality, environmentally unsustainable economic growth and so on). In this paper we present a case study, an attempt by lifestyle and leisure entrepreneurs to build a leisure community in Northern Cyprus, through the invocation of entrepreneurial and organizational leadership strategies of compassion, care, mindfulness and consciousness. We approach this case study through the following research questions: How can we understand compassionate organising? How is compassionate leadership practised? The aim is to explore compassionate leadership and, through a combination of sociological theories of space and insights in quantum theory, offer an empowering understanding of compassionate organisational spaces. In order to understand compassionate organisational spaces we need to turn to socio-spatial theoretical outlines of the nature and constitution of environments (Massey, 2005). Our understanding of that builds on an inherently relational notion of space. Here, physical distance is not the sole or primary factor or variable. Rather, space is unfolded by social relations (of caring and compassion) that transgress physical distances and institutional barriers (Deleuze, 1993; Doel, 1999; Shields, 2013). This approach harmonizes (and is here combined) with the world-view expressed in quantum theory (non-locality and entanglement: that cause and effect works regardless of how far apart they are and that reality is created by consciousness) (Abrahamsson, 2012; Pernecky, 2016). To distill the reasoning somewhat: compassion and consciousness are in themselves unfolded spatialities that can be nurtured into sustainable environments (as things can be observed into existence due to the mind-interdependence of quantum reality).

This conceptual article provides an overview of organizational and stakeholder legitimacy as applied to the study of festivals and their networks of stakeholders. Legitimacy is shown to be a vital condition for festival acceptance and sustainability. Different kinds of criteria for judging legitimacy (legal, pragmatic, moral, and cognitive) are illustrated by reference to typical festival stakeholders. As well, legitimacy can either be situational, depending on problems at hand, or more permanently derived from legal status or institutional arrangements and ownership. Networks of stakeholders have to be considered, and at the levels of industry (i.e., the festival/event sector), area (e.g., festivals in a city), and firm (the festival organization). This article concludes with a discussion of practical management implications, and with a set of propositions that can be used as hypotheses to be tested and as a general guide for future research and interdisciplinary theory building. © 2015 Cognizant Comm. Corp.

The intention of this article is to understand inter-organizational collaboration in a meeting destination context and explain the failure of such collaborative networks. We demonstrate how meeting tourism actors in two smaller Scandinavian cities fail to form long-term collaborations. Major players and organizations in the destination promotion triads [Sheehan, L., Ritchie, J.R.B., & Hudson, S. (2007). The destination promotion triad: Understanding asymmetric stakeholder interdependencies among the city, hotels, and DMO. Journal of Travel Research, 46(1), 64–74] were interviewed in order to map cooperative activities, intentions or latent tensions among these. Based on a constructivist framework of network analysis, we identified the lack of convenor legitimacy and low levels of trust and commitment as reasons for collaboration deficiencies. The findings contribute to Larson's [(2009). Joint event production in the jungle, the park, and the garden: Metaphors of event networks. Tourism Management, 30(3), 393–399] model of event networks, identifying yet another metaphor – the desert – illustrating a network consisting of loosely coupled actors that co-exist but do not interact. The findings also indicate that collaborative dynamics may follow cyclical loops, entailing shifts between turbulence and stability over time.