The urban environment is a complex structure with interlinked social, ecological and technical structures. Global warming is expected to have a broad variety of impacts, which will add to the complexity. Climate changes will force adaptation, to reduce climate-related risks. Adaptation measures can address one aspect at the time, or aim for a holistic approach to avoid maladaptation. This paper presents a systematic, integrated approach for assessing alternatives for reducing the risks of heat waves, flooding and air pollution in urban settings, with the aim of reducing the risk of maladaptation. The study includes strategies covering different spatial scales, and both the current climate situation and the climate predicted under climate change scenarios. The adaptation strategies investigated included increasing vegetation; selecting density, height and colour of buildings; and retreat or resist (defend) against sea-level rise. Their effectiveness was assessed with regard to not only flooding, heat stress and air quality but also with regard to resource use, emissions to air (incl. GHG), soil and water, and people’s perceptions and vulnerability. The effectiveness of the strategies were ranked on a common scale (from -3 to 3) in an integrated assessment. Integrated assessments are recommended, as they help identify the most sustainable solutions, but to reduce the risk of maladaptation they require experts from a variety of disciplines. The most generally applicable recommendation, derived from the integrated assessment here, taking into account both expertise from different municipal departments, literature surveys, life cycle assessments and publics perceptions, is to increase the urban greenery, as it contributes to several positive aspects such as heat stress mitigation, air quality improvement, effective storm-water and flood-risk management, and it has several positive social impacts. The most favourable alternative was compact, mid-rise, light coloured building design with large parks/green areas and trees near buildings. © 2015 The Authors.

Governance research has become strikingly multifaceted in terms of theory, methods and empirical focus. More attention has been given to the spatial and scalar dimensions, and research are becoming more context-sensitive and process-oriented. Drawing upon on results from several research projects and programmes conducted by the authors and some other researchers this article offers an analysis of the development of Swedish central-local government relations since the 1990s. Analysing the constitutional, financial and multi-scalar/multilevel changes of these relations since the end of the Millenium, the strong neoliberal imprint upon ideology and practices is highlighted, showing how de-regulation gradually intermingled with re-regulation, combining market-driven, public welfare provision with measurement, evaluation and control. The article also bring to the fore sustainability, climate change and immigration as local policy fields characterized by horizontal capacity-building involving municipalities, private companies and civil society. Gradually municipal and regional government came under pressure by contextual challenges such as an elderly population, increasing number of school children and integration of immigrants. Related to this central state regulations and obligations multiplied and complicated local policy-making. As a broader discursive framework of the study the analysis is related to Antonino Palumbo’s (2015) exploration of post-war policy development in Europe in the light of two contesting, but complementary, ‘research programmes’, the Regulatory State and the Networked Polity. Finally, the article bring attention to the huge pandemic challenge facing humanity and governance at all levels beginning in spring 2020. What role municipalities will find in this critical juncture remains to be seen.

The article describes and reflects upon how multi-level governance and planning in Sweden have been affected by and reacted upon three pending major challenges confronting humanity, namely climate change, migration and the Covid-19 pandemic. These ‘crises’ are broadly considered ‘existential threats’ in need of ‘securitisation’. Causes and adequate reactions are contested, and there are no given solutions how to securitise the perceived threats, neither one by one, no less together. Government securitisation strategies are challenged by counter-securitisation demands, and plaguing vulnerable groups in society by in-securitising predicaments. Taking Sweden as an example the article applies an analytical approach drawing upon strands of securitisation, governance and planning theory. Targeting policy responses to the three perceived crises the intricate relations between government levels, responsibilities, capacities, and actions are scrutinized, including a focus upon the role of planning. Overriding research questions are: How has the governance and planning system – central, regional and local governments - in Sweden responded to the challenges of climate change, migration and Covid-19? What threats were identified? What solutions were proposed? What consequences could be traced? What prospects wait around the corner? Comparing crucial aspects of the crises’ anatomies the article adds to the understanding of the way multilevel, cross-sectional, hybrid governance and planning respond to concurrent crises, thereby also offering clues for action in other geopolitical contexts. The article mainly draws upon recent and ongoing research on manifestations of three cases in the Swedish context. Applying a pragmatic, methodological approach combining elements of securitisation, governance and planning theories with Carol Lee Bacchi’s ‘What is the problem represented to be’ and a touch of interpretive/narrative theory, the study reveals distinct differences between the anatomies of the three crises and their handling. Urgency, extension, state of knowledge/epistemology, governance and planning make different imprints on crises management. Sweden’s long-term climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies imply slow, micro-steps forward based on a combination of social-liberal, ‘circular’ and a touch of ‘green growth’ economies. Migration policy displays a Janus face, on the one hand largely respecting the UN refugee quota system on the other hand applying a detailed regulatory framework causing severe insecurity especially for minor refugees wanting to stay and make their living in Sweden. The Covid-19 outbreak revealed a lack of foresight and eroded/fragmented responsibility causing huge stress upon personnel in elderly and health care and appalling death rates among elderly patients, although governance and planning slowly adapted through securitising policies, leading to potential de-securitisation of the issue. The three crises have caused a security wake-up among governments at all levels and the public in general, and the article concludes by discussing whether this ‘perfect storm’ of crises will result in a farewell to neoliberalism – towards a neo-regulatory state facing further challenges and crises for governance, planning and the role of planners. The tentative prospect rather indicates a mixture of context-dependent ‘hybrid governance’, thus also underlining the crucial role of planners’ role as ‘chameleons’ in complicated governance processes of politics, policy and planning.

National policy approaches to adaptation to climate change in Australia are used to address a research inquiry into the political values of adaptation policies. This study examines whether this public policy response constitutes ecological modernisation and considers the implications. Ecological modernisation’s associations with neo-liberalism are reviewed and an account of key public policies is given. Particular attention is paid to maladaptation risks and the question of the possible influence of ecological modernisation in contributing to these risks. Key findings include that the Australian adaptation policy approach features ecological modernisation, that comprehensive-rational planning is used, and that ecological justice values are at risk

Research and policy into climate change adaptation responses has expanded from the technological, financial and institutional realms into the social realms. There is a growing interest in, and awareness of, political aspects of adaptation policy and planning. This paper considers three aspects of this development and the broad issue of how contemporary political values influences adaptation responses. Firstly, a case is presented for identifying the political values in climate change adaptation policies, plans and programmes. Secondly, a range of political values and ideologies associated with public sector and NGO climate change adaptation measures are identified from contemporary scholarship. Thirdly, a number of implications of adaptation policy stemming from these political values are identified.

This book examines the political themes and policy perspectives related to, and influencing, climate change adaptation. It provides an informed primer on the politics of adaptation, a topic largely overlooked in the current scholarship and literature, and addresses questions such as why these politics are so important, what they mean, and what their implications are. The book also reviews various political texts on adaptation. 

An emerging component of the adaptation discourse, embracing theory, practice and review, is that of the negative assessment of adaptation, namely, maladaptation. Political theories and concepts have been applied as one of these assessment tools, giving rise to a political critique of maladaptation. Such a critique contrasts with the more conventional scientific and technical assessments of adaptation policies, programs and practices. Key political themes in studies of maladaptation include resource management and allocations, decision making processes, equity and fairness, gender, power and influence, and Nature and ecology. Within the scholarship on the politics of maladaptation, overlapping frameworks can be identified. Critiques of adaptation have been applied to the preconditions of adaptation, adaptation decision making processes and institutions, and to adaptation outcomes. There are a number of conceptual challenges in undertaking political analyses of adaptation. In this article, we outline the origins of the adaptation and maladaptation concepts, we describe the key political issues, we identify the application of politics in the maladaptation discourse and identify the major political perspectives. Finally, we draw conclusions on the state of the maladaptation discourse.

Climate change is one of the most challenging global issues today. Acknowledging no political or administrative borders it has to be tackled at all levels of society. This article focuses on how and to what degree Swedish municipalities cooperate with actors on different societal levels. How does politics, the levels of CO2 emissions and municipal resources affect the patterns of cooperation? The empirical material in this study is a survey conducted in the year 2005, a database with data from all Swedish municipalities, statistics from Statistics Sweden, the Swedish Association of Local Authorities and Regions and the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. Among the conclusions are that the municipalities are involved in multilevel governance but mainly with other municipalities or other public actors. Politics and resources matter while CO2 emissions have less explanatory-power concerning the municipalities activities in co-operations addressing climate change. The state plays an important role in stimulating municipalities to address the issue of climate change.

The main aim of the thesis is to analyse the preconditions of contemporary Swedish city politics. The aim is reached through the answering of three questions; 1), what characterises contemporary Swedish city politics? 2), what contributes to the shaping and organisation of urban political processes in Sweden? 3), what problems and challenges are central to Swedish city politics?

Based on interviews, documents and articles an empirical study of a Swedish city (Västerås) in its historical, national and international context is taken as a point of departure for reflections and conclusions with regard to the development of city politics and planning in Sweden. City politics in the studied city is analysed within the wider context of Swedish welfare state development and the international and global processes that have potential effects on national and city politics. The relationship between the historical development and urban politics is conceptualised by an approach where local actors act within structures that both constrain and enable action. Crucial concepts guiding the analysis are agenda, interests, representation, actors, democracy, planning, networks and legitimation.

In conclusion the study shows how a specific urban process is influenced by courses of events at different societal levels, events that contribute to the formation of a contextual setting where the concrete actions are staged and played out. Global and international phenomena influence politics at the national level with consequences for the configuration of central-local relations and other preconditions of urban political processes. Urban politics occur within a framework that is favourable to the interests of some actors and negative to others. Thus, urban politics is deeply affected by extra-local determinants with substantial effects upon the urban environment. To survive and develop in a world ridden by such strong forces city politics faces the dual challenge of acting efficiently, i.e. being sensitive to the needs and demands of local elites, while keeping its democratic legitimacy, i.e. being sensitive to the needs and demands of all citizens.

Denna rapport är slutrapporten från forskningsprojektet “Minskadeklimatrisker i framtidens bebyggelse och boende lärande från tidigarehändelser och samhällsplanering” som genomförts på Centrum förklimat och säkerhet mellan 2014 – 2018 och finansierats av StiftelsenLänsförsäkringsgruppens Forsknings- och Utvecklingsfond.Projektet har bestått av fem delstudier kring klimatriskhantering ochklimatanpassning i flera olika geografiska kontexter runt om i Sverige.Den studie av Göteborgsregionen som presenteras i denna rapport ärett sätt att skapa en syntes av de olika teoretiska och empiriskaingångarna i detta projekt genom en studie av den aktuellaproblematiken på en specifik plats.

Mikael Granberg som står som redaktör för rapporten är professor istatsvetenskap och föreståndare för Centrum för klimat och säkerhet.

In this article local governance in the Swedish context is discussed. A case study of a Swedish city is framed in its historical, national and international context. By locating the redevelopment of an old harbour within a historical context, new insights are brought into the understanding of local governance. Cities are indeed nested. Deteriorating public finances, the deregulation of the economy (nationally and globally), the changed status of the welfare state, the restructuring of industry and the neo-liberal wave all taken together form a formidable challenge. A radical questioning of the values,

principles and forms of the Swedish welfare state has tangible impacts on local governance. It is concluded that Swedish municipal actors face the dual challenge of acting efficiently (being sensitive to the needs and demands of local elites), while keeping democratic legitimacy (being sensitive to the needs and demands of all citizens).

Climate change always manifests itself on the local arena and localities have to handle impacts of climate change. The policy and practice in the urban arena is central in relating global standards and knowledge, national and regional climate change scenarios/policies into particular action in specific contexts but also as a setting were new practices develop not necessarily related to top-down policies. Local governments’ responsibilities and climate change impacts intersect significantly with services for infrastructure and property services, planning and development, health and sanitation, community, building, facilities, culture, recreation facilities and water and sewerage.

Local government in the city of Örebro (a city with 140 000 inhabitants in Sweden) is establishing windmill parks with the objective that local government will become self-sufficient. Local government does this through the creation of a company were private actors can buy shares and take part in the future development of the company and the local/regional energy market. The local government also runs a project were all public transport are running on biogas sourced from local feedstock. The aim is to facilitate a transition for households and business to biogas by creating and supporting a growing local/regional biogas market.

In this paper we take a closer look at these policy practices. We will look at the political arguments and actual local government action in these two cases were the city´s local government interact with other societal actors (business and citizens) in efforts to create local/regional markets within two socio-technical systems (energy and transport). We will consider if this is a functional way to facilitate low carbon transitions within socio-technical systems. We will also consider how these endeavours is perceived by political actors (majority and opposition) and if any conflicting interests in the choice of the market pathway can be observed in political processes in the city.

Policy and practice at the local level is central in relating global standards and knowledge, national and regional climate change scenarios and policy decisions into particular climate action in a specific context (Bulkeley and Betsill, 2003; Elander et al., 2003; Lundqvist and Biel, 2007; Storbjörk, 2007; Storbjörk, 2010; Castán Broto and Bulkeley, 2012; van den Berg and Coenen, 2012; Romero-Lankao, 2012; Bulkeley et al., 2015). This means that cities, and their local governments, are central to understanding the implementation of international agreements (regimes), national and regional climate change policy. It needs to be stressed, however, that local governments are not just implementers of policy decision taken at higher levels of government. Local governments can, and perhaps have to, be forerunners in climate change policy and practice, as the sources and impacts of climate change are always local, national policy and international negotiations are not always successful, and national governments are not necessarily taking the lead (Gore and Robinson, 2009; Bulkeley et al., 2015; Bulkeley and Betsill, 2003). Local government action on climate change takes place in a specific local setting. It also takes place in a policy environment characterized by cross-cutting issues and cross pressure from government actors on international, national and regional levels, unfolding public sector reform, continuous policy development, and demands from businesses and citizens (Granberg et al., 2016). Accordingly, why and how cities act on climate change challenges is by no means a straightforward matter (Bulkeley et al., 2015) but, certainly, one that warrants critical research. This chapter focuses on local government low carbon action within the field of alternative energy production, zooming in on the organizational modes and on intermediary functions and actors in efforts aiming at low carbon transitions (cf. Bulkeley and Betsill, 2013; Hodson et al., 2013). In the Swedish context, low carbon transitions are of course connected to the ecological need to reduce GHG (greenhouse gas) emissions, mitigating future risks and impacts. But they are also increasingly connected to the more economic arguments connected to the concept of a carbon or fossil bubble (Schoenmaker et al., 2015; Rubin, 2015). That is, the idea that any investments made in fossil fuel-based companies are investments that will add to GHC emissions and, perhaps even more important from this perspective, fail to produce any long-term economic profits. According to this perspective, all viable investments need to be directed towards no-carbon solutions, businesses and markets or there will be serious negative economic impacts when the carbon bubble eventually bursts. The central questions of this chapter are how capacity-building for low carbon transitions evolves at the interface between state and market and what specific role local governments take in this interface. As already indicated above, this perspective is guided by the concept of intermediation through institutional experimentation (cf. Luque-Ayala et al., Chapter 2, this volume; also, Hodson and Marvin, 2009, 2012; Hodson et al., 2013). Intermediaries here are defined as entities that connect, translate and facilitate flows between different parties. The focus of the chapter is, more precisely, on systemic intermediation on a network level involving more than two parties (Hodson and Marvin, 2009). The intermediary role can be divided into facilitating, configuring and brokering (Stewart and Hyysalo, 2008). Accordingly, the aim of this chapter is to study local government efforts to build low carbon capacity by describing, critically examining and analysing local government climate action. In the case studied here, we can see the local government organization intermediating indirectly by trying to facilitate flows of both experience and capital between public and private actors but also directly as a market actor through a boundary hybrid organization facilitating connections between local government and market actors. A hybrid organization (cf. Koppell, 2006) is an organization that mixes value systems and logics of various spheres such as the state and the market (cf. Erlingsson et al., 2014; Montin, 2016). More precisely, the local government uses a 'green' investment fund, facilitating public-private networking and a municipal company in their efforts to advance a low carbon transition. The case studied follows the development of local government climate change action over the last decade in the Swedish city of Örebro. The city profiles itself as a forerunner in environmental issues and has formulated ambitious reduction targets. Sweden is often considered a pioneer in environmental governance (Lidskog and Elander, 2012), combining high ambitions at a national level, strong local government and robust policy guided by ecological modernization (Lundqvist, 2000; Zannakis, 2015). It has been stated that if Sweden still holds on to a leading international position in environmental governance it is probably due to activities at the local level (Granberg and Elander, 2007; Uggla and Elander, 2009; Hjerpe et al., 2014). Accordingly, Sweden provides an interesting context for studies of local government climate change action via market mechanisms, given its combination of strong local government with high (national and local) environmental ambitions. Arguably, drawing from this, if Sweden is to be perceived as a 'least likely' case for utilizing market mechanisms due to its strong and resourceful local government (cf. Flyvbjerg, 2006), then local government action in Sweden becomes a critical case worthy of critical inquiry. In the sections that follow, this chapter elaborates aspects integral to the case studied. First, it briefiy presents the Swedish local government system and its development, highlighting the presence of strong local governments and their central role in the Swedish government system. This is followed by a presentation of Swedish policy development within the fields of climate change, energy generation and GHG mitigation, again highlighting the central role given to Swedish local government. The chapter ends with a set of conclusions aimed at an integrated analysis of the Swedish government system, national policy developments and the local component of the case study showing how these three components are, in fact, one integrated multilevel case. It is clear that the local government uses a form of institutional experimentation that mixes value systems and logics of both state and market in its strive to becoming a 'climate smart' city.

Urban transformations and policy responses  

Mikael Granberg

We now have a rapidly growing global city system that is changing society. The economic and social settings are impacted and even ecology is changing as urban areas develop into new biospheres. The impact of this process is considerable and has far reaching consequences for the way society will develop in the future. Changes and challenges are channelled and mediated through societal structures and through the actions of a multitude of heterogeneous actors—formal and informal, top-down or bottom-up, individual or collective—in action and reaction to perceived changes in society. This means that the culture, lifestyles, design, economy, management and governing of cities is essential for world developments. The central issue is how societal actors in urban settings handle the impact of these changes (transformations) in a way that facilitates sustainable urban development?

Society itself is a continuous process of action, decisions and effects where the actions of earlier generations have a considerable impact on contemporary developments and where contemporary action and decisions will impact future generations. Accordingly, we are talking about an ongoing historical conditioning of society. One aspect of this is path dependency. Path dependency occurs when incumbent structures, i.e., infrastructure or institutions (norms, routines and rules) guides (facilitates or delimits) behaviour. It is important to state, however, that the structuring always is temporary path dependency only temper continuous processes of change. Change in path dependent conditions take place through formative moments or windows opportunity and this refers to situations were historical and contemporary circumstances align in ways that make rapid change possible despite structural constraints. Changes in formative moment can be rapid and revolutionary. Formative moments can be driven by different types of crises (political, economical, technological, social and environmental) leading to paradigmatic shifts in society changing the preconditions for policy making and making more radical change possible.

The urban setting can be perceived as a common. That is, a common pool of resource, challenges and problems that has to be owned and handled by the inhabitants of the city. Governance of commons requires a flexible system for policy making that includes interactive and adaptive steering, including social and policy learning. Flexible policy making demands a positive feedback loop that creates order out of our experience and storing these experiences as knowledge. Proactive and flexible policymaking is not about finding the right policy for the future to come. The focus must be on flexible and proactive policy making that is formulated at scales appropriate for decision makers and citizens. This is a more systemic perspective on policy that concerns itself more with who interacts with whom, about what, rather than targeting specific, well-defined outcomes as policy goals. From this perspective policy is perceived as a process. With this perspective on policy follows that a multitude of agents can act as policy-makers, not just government agencies, but also firms and industry associations, NGOs and private foundations. Uncertainty connected to social development encourages viewing policy as an on-going exploration with many possible changes of direction rather than an optimization exercise based upon detailed assumptions about the lay of the land ahead and a clear and explicit goal about where the journey is to end. One issue is, of course, if the incumbent policy system will be able to adapt to accommodate flexible policy processes or if path dependency will hinder or considerably slow down such development?

We now have a rapidly growing global city system that is changing society. The impact of this process is considerable and has far reaching consequences for global sustainable development. These transitions occur as a result of the complexities, uncertainties and challenges confronting society. Urban transitions are both evolutionary – incremental changes to societal structures and the environment – and revolutionary – rapid changes to societal structures and the environment. Urban transitions are about broad societal change that is the intentional and unintentional result of historical or contemporary decisions. This means that transitions are channelled and mediated through societal structures and through the actions of a multitude of heterogeneous actors—formal and informal, top-down or bottom-up, individual or collective—in action and reaction to perceived changes in society. Urban transitions are a vital global issue as more than half of the world population lives in urban areas today, and, at the same time global economy, cultures and politics becomes increasingly urban.

Modern society has constructed forms for handling collective problems and this has taken the form of departmentalisation within the framework of the welfare state, as well as in the highly specialised business sector. These departments and branches are to a great extent geared to face identified challenges to society and consist of trained experts. Problems suitable for handling by such existing –‘prefabricated’ – departments are sometimes called ‘tame’ problems, which refer to problems that enjoy relative consensus in society on both problem definition and solution. Society faces issues characterized by fragmentation of perspectives, understanding, knowledge and interests, or when the issue at stake is given different priority by the involved actors. Complex problems that do not fit neatly into predefined policy areas and regulatory arrangements provide an opening for innovations and solutions that can break free from constraining structures.

Uncertainty encourages viewing policy as an ongoing exploration with many possible adjustments, rather than an exercise based upon detailed assumptions and one singular image of the future to come. This requires research and reflection on social learning and institutional innovation as well as development of new modes of communication between different actors, scales and areas of expertise in the urban setting. The kingpin for handling uncertainty is an improved communication between actors leading to an increased social learning. This social learning must aim at a more common understanding of problems facing society, and take place between experts, businesses, individuals, NGOs and politicians.

An elaborated and commonly shared understanding of the policy ‘playing field’ will bring actors from different spheres of society together and help to solve collective issues. A strong focus on social learning further call for flexible policy making that demands a positive feedback loop which may create order and efficient knowledge out of various experiences. Proactive policymaking is not about finding the one right policy for the future, but the focus must be on a flexible policy making at proper scales for both democracy and efficiency concerns. This is a more systemic perspective on policy, more concerned with who interacts with whom, about what, rather than targeting specific, well-defined outcomes as policy goals. With this perspective on policy as an ongoing process follows that a multitude of agents act as policy-makers, not just government agencies, but also firms and industry associations, NGOs and private foundations.

Capacity to act is at the core of handling urban transitions. Capacity to act is built upon the ability to pool resources from different actors in society creating a system for efficient problem solving. How may society build the capacity to be more proactive and mitigate perceived future problems already today? How do society create authority (legitimate decision making) to handle ‘abrasive’ policy problem that can entail sacrifices by both elites and ordinary citizens?

Denna rapport utgör en delrapportering inom projektet ”Samhällsresiliens i Sverige: Styrning, Sociala nätverk och lärande” finansierat av Myndigheten för samhällsskydd och beredskap (MSB) och koordinerat av Risk and crisis research centre (RCR) vid Mittuniversitetet. Syftet med rapporten är att skapa förståelse för relationen mellan begreppen klimatanpassning och resiliens samt att ge en bild av hur det lokala klimatanpassningsarbetet hanteras i svenska kommuner (primärt i samhällsplaneringen) ur ett resiliensperspektiv. Denna text är en av fem inom forskningsprojektet där de andra fyra fokuserar på begreppen resiliens, community och ”community resilience”; resiliens i praktiken; flyktingskap och migration; samt terrorism och våldsbejakande extremism utifrån ett resiliensperspektiv.

The idea that climate change adaptation is best leveraged at the local scale is a well-institutionalized script in both research and formal governance. This idea is based on the argument that the local scale is where climate change impacts are “felt” and experienced. However, sustainable and just climate futures require transformations in systems, norms, and cultures that underpin and reinforce our unsustainable practices and development pathways, not just “local” action. Governance interventions are needed to catalyse such shifts, connecting multilevel and multiscale boundaries of knowledge, values, levels and organizational remits. We critically reflect on current adaptation governance processes in Victoria, Australia and the Gothenburg region, Sweden to explore whether regional-scale governance can provide just as important leverage for adaptation as local governance, by identifying and addressing intersecting gaps and challenges in adaptation at local levels. We suggest that regional-scale adaptation oers possibilities for transformative change because they can identify, connect, and amplify small-scale (local) wins and utilize this collective body of knowledge to challenge and advocate for unblocking stagnated, institutionalized policies and practices, and support transformative change.

The focus of this article is the Swedish experience of local governance and climate change, including mitigation and adaptation. The municipal response to these two challenges is set within a broader policy context that acknowledges Sweden as a pioneer in environmental governance, including its comparatively high ambitions with regard to the reduction of greenhouse ga emissions. Central–local relations in climate policy are analysed, and climate change mitigation and adaptation are exemplified by some snapshots of municipal initiatives, including the popular habit of networking between municipalities within as well as across national borders. In conclusion we briefly evaluate the Swedish local governance experience of climate change mitigation and adaptation to date as characterized by radical rhetoric and ambitious goals combined with a lot of promising initiatives, although still with fairly modest results in terms of tangible outcomes. Finally, we reflect upon what we consider to be the most important questions for future research on local governance and climate change.

Hur klarar egentligen medierna att rapportera om komplicerade politiska energibeslut? Utgångspunkten i granskningen är de fem energipolitiska regeringsbeslut mellan 2003–2020 som under hösten 2023 fick svidande kritik av Riksrevisionen. Motiveringen var att besluten var dåligt underbyggda och brast i konsekvensanalys. Samma kritik skulle kunna riktas mot mediernas rapportering. Rapporten visar bland annat: De som kommer till tals i nyhetsrapporteringen är framför allt elbolagen och den politiska oppositionen.Trots att det finns mycket forskning på området, intervjuas sällan forskare. Inte heller citeras det ur de många utredningar som gjorts.Miljörörelsen är så gott som osynlig i rapporteringen. 

This paper examines Australia's national policies for adapting to climate change impacts. Recent developments in research funding, institutional capacities and extreme events have resulted in a greater interest and level of activity in adaptation policy. Based on a historical review of national policy, adaptation policy is considered within a political frame and political values, especially the values of neoliberalism, within adaptation policy are identified. Of interest are the implications of these values for the outcomes of adaptation policy, with attention given to the problem of maladaptation.

In this paper we propose that public climate change adaptation policy arises frompolitics and, accordingly, understanding and analysing such policy has to engagescholars with a keen interest in politics. In line with this proposition a distinguishingfeature in this paper is that it seeks to consider adaptation policy for cities in a politicalcontext. This paper aims to review issues associated with the public policy response toclimate change adaptation in Australian cities and consider whether the approachadopted by the federal government increases the risks of maladaptation.

The focus in this paper is on policy and implementation of adaptation policies. The interest in adaptation policy in this text concerns the public policy dimension and not spontaneous social adaptations to changing climate or that undertaken independently by corporations or communities. The focus is on public policy and implementation that are planned, purposeful and intentional. The main issue in this text is how Swedish governance of climate change adaptation is organised and if this type of organising (or lack or organising) can lead to difficulties in reaching long term sustainable adaptation measures or even maladaptation at the local level?

Climate change is a complicated social problem. Formulating and implementing adaptation measures at the local level entails handling value conflicts, power relations, governance, equity, resource allocation, competing interests and, connected to all these issues and more, uncertainty. All this takes place in a complex context where a multitude of factors, and actors representing different societal interests, are interacting both facilitating and hindering effective action and involves changes in modes of operation in society as a whole.

Adaptation range from the local to the large, its time horizon can range from the short to the long terms, it can be tactical or strategic, it can seek immediate, delayed, or cumulative effects, and it can encompass widely differing outcomes.

Accordingly, formulating adaptation responses is a challenging issue for municipalities for a number of reasons. Firstly, the large range of possible climate change impacts. Secondly, the insufficient knowledge base. Thirdly, the lack of consensus on responsibilities. Fourthly, the usual set of problems facing public policy of this sort. In this paper we will focus adaptation measures implemented by Swedish municipalities. The empirical material consists of studies from state authorities of municipal adaptation to climate change.

This book analyzes climate change from a societal risk perspective, considering IPCC data, harm reduction, and global impact. Climate change is a globalised agent of social disruption whose impacts will worsen societal inequities and inequalities around the world. For some unfortunate societies already precariously exposed, climate change will tip them into societal collapse. Devastation will also occur to many ecological values in which all societies are embedded. But effective social action can limit the extent of these costs and losses. Ultimately, only social transformation can limit the social and environmental harms of climate change. But what does this mean? To what extent is society at risk? Are such risks particularized and restricted to specific segments and localities? Or is society at risk in a more universal way? Climate risks are re-shaping the practices of households, communities, governments and businesses. In this way, climate risks are a dynamic element in social change and social processes. Risk holds a mirror to society, revealing who and what is prioritized, recognized and valued. It also provides a reckoning of our perceived strengths, vulnerabilities and weaknesses. This volume examines how we understand the societal risks of contemporary and forecast climate change impacts—and those risks inherent in dealing with these impacts. We know that society is fashioning a new global climate—but climate change is also re-fashioning society; this book explores this dynamic process and considers its implications for future society.

Cities are increasingly impacted by climate change, driving the need for adaptation and sustainable development. Local and global economic and socio-cultural influence are also driving city redevelopment. This, fundamentally political, development highlights issues of who pays and who gains, who decides and how, and who/what is to be valued. Climate change adaptation has primarily been informed by science, but the adaptation discourse has widened to include the social sciences, subjecting adaptation practices to political analysis and critique. In this article, we critically discuss the just city concept in a climate adaptation context. We develop the just city concept by describing and discussing key theoretical themes in a politically and justice-oriented analysis of climate change adaptation in cities. We illustrate our arguments by looking at recent case studies of climate change adaptation in three very different city contexts: Port Vila, Baltimore City, and Karlstad. We conclude that the social context with its power asymmetries must be given a central position in understanding the distribution of climate risks and vulnerabilities when studying climate change adaptation in cities from a climate justice perspective.

This paper analyses the political process for handling an outbreak of an insect causing human allergic reactions. In the southern part of the Swedish island Gotland in the Baltic Sea, an outbreak of the northern pine processionary moth, Thaumetopoea pinivora,

has occurred. With regard to the human nuisance and long-term effects on the tourist industry, demands have been raised for intervention to reduce and control the insect population. At the same time, there have been warnings against treating the insect

population because there are knowledge gaps concerning the wider ecological consequences, including effects on biodiversity. This paper analyses the political process and its problemsolving

efforts. Of particular interest is how it dealt with the issue of uncertainty. It was found that the uncertainty associated with the issue hindered the development of a shared understanding of the problem and a possible solution. There seems to be a growing need in society to develop the institutional capacity to handle complex issues that cross different sectors, regulatory frameworks and policy targets.

In this paper we describe the development of Swedish municipalities as we trace the origin of the modern municipality to the late 19^th century to today with a special focus on the last 40-50 years of development. With this as a background, and related to the research literature, we develop four different theoretical perspectives (ideal types): (1), The municipality as community: focusing on common interests and challenges in the local social and political order. (2), The state integrated municipality: focusing on the implementation of national welfare functions, the role of the municipality and the steering and control efforts of the nation-state. (3), The facilitating municipality: focusing on mobilization and integration of different types of resources across borders within the public sector and between public and private institutions. (4), The market oriented municipality: focusing on freedom of choice reform and that public activities should be put on the market according to the belief that competition is the most important motor of public economy. The different theoretical perspectives, it is argued, catches notion and ideas guiding the development of local politics and democracy. Experiences from reforms, which are related to these ideas, are presented. The overall questions raised are what ideas are empirically represented in different policy fields? The paper concludes by discussing two examples of contemporary policy fields in the light of the four theoretical perspectives.

In this paper we describe the development of Swedish municipalities – we trace the origin of the modern municipality to the late 19^th century to today with a special focus on the last 40-50 years of development – through four different theoretical lenses (ideal types): (1), The municipality as a common (communitarian) that focuses on common interests and challenges in the local social and political order. (2), The state integrated municipality that focuses on the implementation of national welfare functions, the role of the municipality and the steering and control efforts of the nation-state. (3), The market oriented municipality that focuses freedom of choice reform and that public activities should be put on the market according to the belief that competition is the most important motor of public economy. (4), The coordinating and facilitating municipality that focuses on how to mobilize and integrate different types of resources across borders within the public sector and between public and private institutions. By using the different theoretical perspectives it is shown that the development of local politics and democracy is driven by different ideas. Experiences from reforms, which are related to these ideas, are presented. The article concludes by pointing out some important challenges and potential pathways for future development of local democracy in Sweden.

To understand the situation of climate risk management we need to understand the priorities and politics of the wider policy context. The framing of potentially incompatible policy issues is important to take into account when analysing policy processes. In this article, we focus on two policy issues aiming at local adaptation to global forces: facilitating city competiveness and adapting to the impacts of global climate change. Global climate change always manifests itself in the local arena, which thus becomes a crucial site for adaptation to the risks connected to climate change. Adaptation has to correspond with the city policy agenda to build the attractive city through waterfront housing as a means to strengthen its competitiveness in a globalised economy. This article focuses on the relationship between pursuing competitiveness through waterfront housing and the needs to adapt to climate change in terms of contemporary and future flood risks.