This book discusses different ways in which the cross-roads between emotions and resistance can be theorised. While the sociological field focuses primarily on emotions that are entangled in the relationship between the individual and collective, the cultural studies field has recently started to emphasise affects as a ‘rescue’ from the deterministic aspect of the poststructuralist approach (in which language decides everything) (Hemmings 2005, 2014). Scholars promoting the ‘affective turn’ argue that affects and interpretations are inseparable. By taking affects as the point of departure, it is argued that it is possible to show how bodies move in their own ways, but still in relation to others. Departing from this, it becomes interesting to explore how emotions are involved in different power relations and how they feed resistance. If we accept that emotions and interpretations are entangled and inseparable then we must investigate emotions as powerful forces of resistance.

This article is a theoretical exploration of a layer of loyalty called self-loyalty. We define self-loyalty as an emotion that is channelled through social forms. To show the usage and relevance of the concept we present social acceleration as a contextualisation. Two self-loyalty strategies in relation to acceleration are discussed: a voluntary form based on resistance and an involuntary form based on acceptance and 'playing the game'.

I följande artikel görs en teoretisk utveckling av begreppet lojalitet. Begreppet används idag på ett common sense-artat sätt och därmed riskerar begreppet att få bristfällig förklaringskraft. Till exempel betonas alltför ofta vertikala relationer med hjälp av begreppet. I artikeln presenteras fyra sociala lojalitetsformer i syfte att frambringa ett skarpare lojalitetsbegrepp som kan användas inom exempelvis arbetslivsforskningen.

Ska du ryta ifrån när det händer dåliga saker på jobbet, trots att du riskerar din karriär? Ska du boka den där billiga Thailandsresan eller ska du avstå för klimatets och framtida generationers skull? Ska du jobba övertid som du lovade chefen, eller ska du stanna hemma och leka med barnen som du lovade dem? 

Det som tas upp i dessa frågor behandlas i denna bok som lojalitetskonflikter. Som människor kan vi nästan inte undgå att ha en rad bindningar eller lojaliteter till specifika personer eller fenomen. Våra lojaliteter kommer dessutom lätt i konflikt med varandra. 

I boken argumenteras för att lojalitetskonflikter är ett mycket generellt fenomen som finns på samhällets alla områden. Här presenteras en begreppsapparat för att förstå lojaliteter och lojalitetskonflikter. Även strategier för att hantera dem tas upp. Lojalitetskonflikter analyseras sedan i alltifrån lätta till svåra och omöjliga fall.

Boken vänder sig till en bred samhällsvetenskaplig läsekrets och syftar till att ge nya uppslag och vara grund för diskussioner inom ämnen som sociologi, arbetsvetenskap, socialt arbete och statsvetenskap.

One way to conceptualize the complexity of working life is to see it through the lens of loyalty. When a person works several loyalties are active – the legal duty of loyalty to the employer; loyalty to colleagues, loyalty to the profession, et cetera.

It is common to make distinctions between different forms of loyalties – it is for example different to be loyal to your friend compared to being loyal to your country. In our own research we have focused on the differences between vertical and horizontal loyalties. But to the best of our knowledge one important distinction is quite absent from previous research about loyalty: The distinction is between negative and positive loyalty. This conceptual pair is inspired by Isaiah Berlins classical discussion about freedom . Berlin theorizes two different forms of freedom – negative freedom (freedom from coercion) and positive freedom (freedom as autonomy and personal development).

George P. Fletcher has in his classical study on loyalty come close to our distinction. He uses the concept of “minimum loyalty” (what we call negative loyalty) and “maximum loyalty” (positive loyalty). The problem with Fletcher´s terminology is that it connotes a quantitative difference when the difference in reality is qualitative. Some loyalties can be characterized as an absence of disloyalty (when a person obeys the legal duty of loyalty) – we call this form negative loyalty. And some loyalties are filled with the presence of emotions, commitment and so on – this is positive loyalty.

The present study is theoretically oriented, and methodologically we have been inspired by Richard Swedberg’s notion of theorizing and his ideas about its central role in social science.

I detta paper introduceras begreppet självlojalitet; begreppet utvecklas sedan i relation till centrala fenomen i arbetslivet. Begreppsutvecklingen sker med inspiration från Richard Swedbergs resonemang kring theorizing som en vetenskaplig metod i sig själv. Theorizing innebär bland annat att processen är viktig, inte bara det teoretiska slutresultatet. I linje med detta är vårt mål att uttrycka oss på ett essäistiskt och tankeväckande sätt som startar läsarens egna (och kanske också alternativa) resonemang om ämnet. I vårt paper bygger vi vidare på vår tidigare utveckling av lojalitetsbegreppet. Vi hämtar lojalitetsdefinitionen från Josiah Royce, och definierar lojalitet på detta sätt: ”den praktiska och genomgripande hängivenheten hos en person för en sak”. Vi menar att ”en sak” kan vara något som är tydligt anknutet till en enskild individ – till exempel ett livsprojekt, en karriär eller en hobby. Självlojalitet kan till exempel innebära att man på självdisciplinerat och metodiskt sätt strävar efter framtida, personliga mål i yrkeslivet. Även om självlojalitet är tydligt kopplat till en enskild individ rör det sig dock inte om  något asocialt. Eftersom människor är sociala varelser präglas även relationerna till oss själva, som individer, av det sociala livet. I anslutning till självlojalitetens socialitet så ser vi självlojalitet som en social form i Georg Simmels mening. Vi bygger härmed vidare på vårt tidigare teoretiserande där vi har arbetat fram fyra sociala lojalitetsformer som är aktuella i interpersonella sammanhang (vertikal-ofrivillig; vertikal-frivillig; horisontell-ofrivillig; horisontell-frivillig). Självlojalitet kan inte buntas ihop med någon av dessa fyra utan bör ses som ett eget begrepp. Relationen mellan det horisontella och vertikala ser inte ut att vara relevant i samband med självlojalitet – däremot skillnaden mellan det frivilliga och det ofrivilliga. Således introduceras två grundformer av självlojalitet – frivillig självlojalitet och ofrivillig självlojalitet. När dessa  rundformer utvecklas i vårt paper sker det i relation till fenomen i arbetslivet. Frivillig självlojalitet är när människor kan utveckla sina möjligheter ”inifrån och ut” i arbetslivet. Det kan till exempel vara när en individ kan försörja sig genom det som först var en hobby. Ofrivillig självlojalitet handlar om att människor pressas utifrån till att vara självlojala. Uttryckt med mer vedertagna begrepp så handlar det om att individer pressas till att ”förverkliga sig själva” och vara individualistiska. Vi menar att den ofrivilliga självlojaliteten är påfallande i vårt samhälle, och ett exempel på detta fenomen är Arbetsförmedlingens behandling av arbetslösa personer. I vårt paper förs också ett resonemang om självlojalitet som del i en vidare samhällstendens där olika ursprungligen interpersonella fenomen (till exempel lojalitet – men även något helt annat som fotografin) fått mer individualistiska varianter under senare decennier

En klassifikation av olika strategier för att hantera lojalitetskonflikter presenteras. En huvudindelning i denna klassifikation är mellan proaktiva och reaktiva strategier. Inom både den proaktiva och reaktiva inriktningen diskuteras sedan olika varianter. Särskild tyngdpunkt läggs påde reaktiva varianterna eftersom dessa bedöms vara de vanligaste. Exempel på reaktiva varianter som bedöms vara frekventa i arbetslivet är följande tre strategier: uppdelning som innebär att man med hjälp av tid eller rum skiljer på olika lojaliteter och på så sätt hanterar konflikten; gränssättning som innebär att själva gränsen mellan olika lojaliteter blir avgörande för enhantering; samt omdefiniering där konflikten omtolkas så att lojalitetskonflikten mildras ellerupphävs.  

Albert O. Hirschman's concepts of exit, voice, and loyalty constitute a well-known theoretical model frequently used in problems concerning loyalties and loyalty conflicts. Despite Hirschman's contributions, we argue that loyalty conflicts are not sufficiently theoretically or empirically explored. In this paper we use theorizing, a method provided by Richard Swedberg, to analyze loyalty conflicts, both in organizational and everyday life and present alternative and complementary perspectives to Hirschman's model. This approach is also a continuation of our own previous research about different forms of loyalties. Two thinkers we consider to be interesting in this case are G. D. H. Cole (1925/26) and Harold Guetzkow (1955). The theoretical perspectives of these two thinkers are combined in the paper – and this is what we call "the Cole-Guetzkow-view". From G. D. H. Cole, the idea is that society and everyday life are built from a complex weaving of competing loyalties, as well as the idea that loyalty conflicts, and their handling, tightens our discernment and rationality. In sum, loyalty conflicts develop us as reflecting human beings. Guetzkow, from his point of view, discusses different strategies to use when faced with loyalty conflicts. For example, a loyalty conflict can be solved through divided loyalties called compartmenting as in this case: a person may feel loyal to the church on Sundays while more profane loyalties are relevant during the rest of the week. In conclusion, the Cole-Guetzkow-view on loyalty conflicts contributes with ingenious and creative strategies and solutions to different social and moral dilemmas both in organizations and everyday life. The creative and strategic aspects of people facing loyalty conflicts are sometimes missing in the Hirschman-model were the Cole-Guetzkow view can function in a complementary way. As a link between Cole and Guetzkow some ideas from Morton Grodzins are used.

In this presentation we playfully theorizing the concepts of work and loyalty. It is not unusual to see these concepts related to each other in different ways – loyalty in the workplace and in organizations is a well known phenomenon. But here we intend to take one step further: we explore the possibilities for treating work and loyalty as synonymous. In our previous research we have defined loyalty as a ”binding to something specific”. This binding can exist in many different forms - for example in negative form (as absence of disloyalty), and in positive form (loyalty in form of presence – as emotions and commitment). We have identified six forms of positive loyalty. Vertical-involuntary loyalty, vertical-voluntary, horizontal-involuntary, horizontal-voluntary. Among the positive loyalty forms we also find two forms of self-loyalty – voluntary and involuntary. In our playful theorizing with the two concepts we look for interesting etymological similarities between the words and concepts. One similarity concerns ”legal” aspects of both concepts. Loyalty has roots in the french word ”loi”, and in some definitions of ”work” there is a notion of work as ”legal fulfilment”. In our playful way of theorizing we continue our effort to practice a ”conceptual archaeology” and thereby use some older nearly forgotten research about both work and loyalty. But we also make some important connections to new research. Methodologically we are inspired by Richard Swedberg´s approach of theorizing. Also Karlsson and Bergman´s ideas about the importance of theorizing have influenced us.

The present dissertation develops a specific theory about everyday life called realist life mode theory. This theory is based on critical realism and consists of "work", "love" and "life mode" as central concepts. The background of the theory is the Danish life mode analysis developed by Thomas Højrup in the 1980:s.

The aim of the study is to develop the central clusters of concepts in the realist life mode theory - i. e. "work", "love", "life mode" in a theoretical way. These concepts are seen as clusters since other related concepts are developed in connection to the concepts mentioned above. In connection to work I also discuss the concepts of "labour power", "labour receptor", and "work form"; in relation to love, "love power", "love receptor" and "love form" are discussed. And "life mode" is connected with the concept of "everyday life" in a more exact way than before.

The argument of this study is that realist life mode theory is about two fundamental types of dominance - personal dominance and structural dominance. "Personal dominance" is used synonymously with "ownership". "Structural dominance" is dominance between non-personal, non-conscious entities. Life mode theory is a theory about ownership surrounded by structural dominances both beneath the owning person (sub-personally), and above (socially).

Personal dominance - ownership - is produced via two human and societal processes - work and love. Work is defined as doing and occuring in the sphere of necessity. In work there especially are possibilities for ownership of the material surroundings. Love is defined as doing and occuring in the sphere of freedom. In love humans produce each other as self-owned persons through transaction of love power.

Both work and love has great emancipatory potentials, and this theme is discussed in the present study. But, unfortunately, really existing work and love practices are to a great extent exploitative. Labour power is exploited in capitalism, and love power in patriarchy.

When it comes to structural dominance, this study focuses on the following dominances: The dominance of labour receptor over labour power in men´s working life; the dominance of love power over love receptor in women´s love life. The dominance of work over love in men´s everyday life; the dominance of love over work in women´s everyday life. And on a more social level we find the following dominances: in the male life modes the work form dominates the love form. In female life modes the love form dominates the work form. And finally, in society as a whole male life modes have dominance over female life modes.

When the dominance between social structures is analyzed, a distinction is made between "dominance form" and "the substance of dominance".

Presentationen utgår från en begreppsutvecklande och teoretiserande ansats och inspirationen har främst hämtats från Swedbergs (2014) samt Karlsson och Bergmans (2017) idéer om theorizing. Som tillägg har Aakvaags egna idéer om begreppsutveckling också varit vägledande.  

This article points out the importance of the concept of freedom in work life studies. Gunnar C. Aakvaag´s typology of freedom is considered as a valuable point of departure in empirical studies. In connection to the introduction of Aakvaag´s ideas, his typology is related to Blauner´s classical study on freedom in the workplace.

I denna essä presenteras arkitekten Christopher Alexanders resonemang om mönster för arbete och arbetsliv, men också för samhället generellt. Alexanders idéer har fått genomslag på vitt skilda områden – bland annat inom programmering, och hans tankar om mönster har varit viktig för Wikipedias utveckling. Dock har inte hans tankar om arbete och arbetsliv blivit särskilt uppmärksammade tidigare.

Tillit är ett mycket välutforskat fenomen och begrepp inom samhällsvetenskapen under desenaste decennierna. Såväl teoretiskt som empiriskt har många aspekter av tillit blivit belysta. Även lojalitet får betraktas som relativt utforskat, om än inte alls i lika hög grad som tillit. Både lojalitet och tillit berör djupgående men också förhållandevis implicita och svårfångade aspekter av den mänskliga samvaron. I detta paper vill vi utforska relationen mellan dessa fenomen. Även om sådana kopplingar redan har undersökts bedömer vi att mycket återstår att göra. Vi vill just ha ett fokus på själva fenomenen, snarare än begreppen. Bakomliggande finns här ett kritiskt realistiskt perspektiv på vetenskaplig verksamhet, där vi antar att det är samhällsvetenskapens roll att utforska fenomen på en ontologisk nivå snarare än en epistemologisk. Preliminärt kan vi konstatera att i en jämförelse mellan begreppen så framstår tillit som något mer fundamentalt än lojalitet. Tillit tycks exempelvis vara aktuellt i nästan alla mänskliga situationer,medan lojalitet inte är det. Tillit är exempelvis aktuellt redan när vi är små barn – något liknande kan inte sägas om lojalitet. Även om tillit tycks vara mer fundamental vill vi också lyfta fram hittills förhållandevis bortglömd teori om lojalitetens centrala plats i människans socialitet. En likhet vi iakttar är att båda fenomenen är integrerande till sin karaktär. Vi använder här Johan P Olsens begrepp ”politisk ordning” – och både lojalitet och tillit tycks vara centrala när det gäller att skapa en sådan ordning. En skillnad tycks gälla partiskhet. Lojalitet handlar om att vara partisk, att ta ställning för något (och åtminstone implicit ta avstånd från något annat). Tillit tycks inte präglas av en liknande partiskhet. Ytterligare en skillnad berör tidsdimensionen. Tillit tycks vara framtidsinriktad och fenomenet ligger nära ett annat välkänt fenomen – nämligen hopp. Lojalitet, däremot, tycks ha en påtaglig inriktning mot det förflutna. En lojal person ärtrogen mot tidigare gjorde överenskommelser, löften eller avtal. Detta paper är en förstudie till en mindre empirisk studie om lojalitet och tillit bland tjänstemän i offentlig sektor i Norge och Sverige (tjänstemän i Hedmark och Värmland är aktuella). Studien skall vara jämförande och intervjuer skall göras med tjänstemän på tre olika nivåer -  kommunal, regional och statlig nivå

The aim of this study is two-folded. The main objective is to contribute to the development of institutional theory concerning micro level explanations. Further, we want to deepen/explore the institutionalist understanding of well-functioning steering in a crisis situation. The empirical case is the initial steering reactions during the 2011 Norway terrorist attacks. The study is based on interviews with Stoltenberg’s state secretary Hans Kristian Amundsen and with mayor Fabian Stang. The main theoretical conclusion is that institutional theory needs to be complemented by concepts from philosophy, and that the logic of appropriateness also could be interpreted in a wider non-institutional way. The empirical conclusion is that spontaneity and common humanity plays an important, but also clearly limited, role in well-functioning steering and crisis management.

Lysgaard's theory of the worker collectivity is still an influential classic in Scandinavian working-life research. The study was carried out in a pulp and paper mill in the late 1950s and we have returned to the plant to find out what has happened to the worker collectivity. Through observations at the workplace and interviews with workers, engineers and managers, as well as having access to data from the 1950s and 1980s, we are able to map the development of technology, work organization and the collectivity. On this basis, we suggest two changes to Lysgaard's theory. One is to conceptually split what Lysgaard called the technical/economic system into two relatively autonomous systems the technical and the economic, respectively. The other is to analyse the way in which the collectivity has infiltrated the technical, but not the economic system.

This book presents the first published account in English of Sverre Lysgaard's theory of the ‘worker collectivity’ – a theory of an informal protective organisation among subordinate employees, which so far has been unknown outside Scandinavia.

Lysgaard’s theory espouses that workers collectively form a buffer against management to protect themselves from the technical/economic power, which controls their working lives. The authors have returned to the same Norwegian factory Lysgaard studied in the 1950s to carry out ethnographic fieldwork in the 1980s and 2010s, and investigate the changing nature of the production, labour processes and management strategies. Through analysis that extends over 50 years of factory life, this research documents shifting power relations between workers and employers during times of changing institutional structures, globalisation, and worker solidarity. A revised version of the theory is also presented as an answer to some of the uncovered deficiencies in the original framework. The book will be of interest to students and scholars of the sociology of work, labour studies, business management and organisation studies.

Classifications of futures research are usually based on epistemological differences, but we complete these with ontological considerations. The article presents a typology of forecasts, i.e. statements on future events or states. It has two dimensions, truth claim and explanatory claim; each dimension has two values, making the claim or not making the claim. The four outcomes are then: Forecasts which make both truth claims and explanatory claims (predictions); which make truth claims, but not explanatory claims (prognoses); which make explanatory claims, but not truth claims (science fiction); and which make neither truth claims nor explanatory claims (utopias or dystopias). We regard each outcome as an ideal type, against which forecasts can be measured. We illustrate the use of the typology by presenting an example of each outcome